Battle of Bosra

Battle of Bosra

http://www.worldlingo.com/ma/enwiki/en/Battle_of_Bosra 

For battles of Basra, see Battle of Basra.

Battle of Bosra was fought to capture Bosra, which was the first important town to be captured by the Rashidun Caliphate army in Syria, as it was capital city of the Ghassanid kingdom, which was under the rule of the Roman Empire. The siege of Bosra took place between June-July 634.

Contents 1 Background 2 The Battle 3 Conversion Of Commander Romanus to Islam 4 Aftermath 5 External links 6 References

Background

Caliph Abu Bakr sent his four corps under Amr ibn al-A'as, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, Shurahbil bin Hasana and Yazid bin Abu Sufyan and appointed for them different districts of Syria to capture they were unable to get significant success in there goals and were in great pressure because of concentration of Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Bakr therefore decided to sent Khalid ibn Walid,The conqueror of Iraq, to Syria to command the Rashidun Caliphate army there.Khalid ibn Walid reached Syria and capturing town to town he finally reached Bosra city in June 634 A.C according to his instructions Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah who had already occupied the District of Hauran which lay north-east of the river Yarmuk,remain at his position where he was until Khalid arrived at Bosra. Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah Under command had three corps of the Muslim army-his own, Yazeed's and Shurahbil's, but he had fought no battles and captured no towns. One place which worried him a great deal was Bosra, a large town which was the capital of the Ghassanid Kingdom.It was garrisoned by a strong force of Byzantine and Christian Arabs under the command of Roman officers.

While Khalid was clearing the region of Eastern Syria, Abu Ubaidah came to know that he would come under Khalid's command upon the latter's arrival. He decided to take Bosra quickly.He therefore sent Shurahbil with 4,000 men to capture Bosra. Shurahbil marched to Bosra, the garrison of which withdrew into the fortified town as soon as the Muslims appeared in sight. This garrison consisted of 4,000 soldiers, but expecting that more Muslim forces would soon arrive and that Shurahbil's detachment was only an advance guard, it remained within the walls of the fort. Shurahbil camped on the western side of the town, and positioned groups of his men all round the fort.

For two days nothing happened. The following day, as Khalid ibn al-Walid set out on the last day of his march to Bosra, the garrison of the town came out to give battle to the Muslims outside the city. Both forces formed up for battle; but first there were talks between Shurahbil and the Roman commander, at which the Muslim offered the usual alternatives, Islam, the Tribute, or the Sword. The Romans chose the sword, and in the middle of the morning the battle began.

For the first two hours or so the fighting continued at a steady pace with neither side making any headway; but soon after midday, the superior strength of the Romans began to tell and the battle turned in their favors. The Romans were able to move forces around both Muslim flanks, and the fighting increased in intensity. The temper of the Muslims became suicidal as the real danger of their position became evident and they fought ferociously to avoid encirclement, which appeared to be the Roman design. By early afternoon the Roman wings had moved further forward, and the encirclement of Shurahbil's force became a virtual certainty. Then suddenly the combatants became aware of a powerful force of cavalry galloping in mass towards the battlefield from the northwest.

Khalid was about a mile from Bosra when the wind carried the sounds of battle to him. He immediately ordered the men to horse, and as soon as the cavalry was ready, led it a gallop towards the battlefield. But Khalid and the Romans never met. As soon as the Romans discovered the arrival of the Muslims Cavalry, they broke contact from Shurahbil and withdrew hastily into the fort. The Muslims under Shurahbil came to regard this occurrence as a miracle: the Khalid had been sent to save them from destruction!

The Battle

The next morning, the Byzantine garrison again came out of the fort to give battle. The shock of Khalid's arrival the previous day had now worn off, and seeing that the combined strength of the Muslims was about the same as their own, the Romans decided to try their luck again. They also hoped to fight and defeat the Muslims before they could get a rest after their march.

The two armies formed up for battle on the plain outside the town. Khalid kept the center of Rashidun Caliphate army under his own command, appointing Raafe bin Umair as the commander of the right wing and Dhiraar bin Al Azwar as the commander of the left wing. In front of the center, he placed a thin screen under Abdur-Rahman bin Abu Bakr (son of Caliph Abu Bakr). At the very start of the battle, Abdur-Rahman dueled with the Roman army commander and defeated him. As the Roman general fled to the safety of the Roman ranks, Khalid launched a general attack along the entire front. For some time the Romans resisted bravely, while the commanders of the Muslim wings played havoc with the opposing wings, especially Dhiraar, who now established a personal tradition which would make him famous in Syria - adored by the Muslims, and dreaded by the Romans. Because of the heat of the day, he took off his coat of mail; and this made him feel lighter and happier. Then he took off his shirt and became naked above the waist. This made him feel even lighter and even happier. In this half naked condition Dhiraar launched his assaults against the Romans and slaughtered all who faced him in single combat. Within a week, stories of the Naked Champion would spread over Syria, and only the bravest of Romans would feel inclined to face him in combat.

After some fighting, the Byzantine army broke contact and withdrew into the fort. At this time Khalid was fighting on foot in front of his centre. As he turned to give orders for the commencement of the siege, he saw a horseman approaching through the ranks of the Muslims.He was Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah with him was a yellow standard and is believed to have been the standard of the Muhammad at the Battle of Khaybar. This was the man who had been placed under the command of Khalid.He gave that standard to Khalid ibn al-Walid and he took it saying.

“

"By Allah," replied Khalid, "but for the necessity of obeying the orders of the Caliph, I would never have accepted this command over you. You are much higher than me in Islam. I am a Companion of [Muhammad], but you are one whom [Muhammad] had called 'the trusted one of this nation."

”

^[2]

The Muslims now laid siege to Bosra. The Byzantine commander lost hope, for he knew that most of the available reserves had either moved or were moving to Ajnadayn, and doubted that any help would be forthcoming. After a few days of inactivity, he surrendered the fort peacefully. The only condition Khalid bin Walid imposed on Bosra was the payment of the tribute. This surrender took place in about the middle of July 634 A.D.

Conversion Of Commander Romanus to Islam

Another version of the battle of Bosra records the conversion to Islam one of the Commanders of the Byzantine Force, Commander Romanus of Bosra. The conversion occurred after the arrival of Khalid reinforcements to Bosra during pre-battle melee. This conversion made night infiltration into the Bosra fortification possible under the guide of Romanus. Hence enabling the Muslim army to inflict disproportionate number of casualties when compared to their own among the Byzantines forces.

The battle was preceded by a call for personal combat between the Commanders of the armies. Khalid stepped forward from the Muslim ranks and out of the Byzantine ranks their commander Romanus stepped forward. Before dueling, Khalid offered Islam to Romanus, and surprisingly enough, Romanus after asking a few questions about Islam, declared the article of faith and became a Muslim. He crossed over to the Muslim camp.

From the Muslim camp, Romanus addressed the Byzantines in the following terms: "O ye, enemies of God and His prophet. You must not forget that I have accepted the true faith of Islam to please God. Now no common ties exist between you and me, either in this world, or in the world hereinafter. I deny him who was crucified, and sever any connections with his followers. I choose Allah for my Lord, and Muhammad (peace be on him) as my Prophet, the Ka'aba as my sanctuary, and the Muslims as my brethren. In sooth, I bear witness that there is no God but Allah. He has no partner, and Muhammad (peace be on him) is His prophet, whom He selected to direct mankind to the right way. I am fully convinced that God would exalt the true religion of Islam over the religion of those who join partners with His Divinity."

Muslim occupation of Bosra. The conversion of Romanus to Islam unnerved the Byzantine forces, and instead of giving the fight, they withdrew to the city and shut the gates against the Muslims. That night, Romanus led a Muslim detachment to a subterranean passage under the ramparts of the city. This contingent was led by Abdur Rahman, the son of Abu Bakr. This contingent entered the city through the underground passage and then dashing towards the city gates opened them for the main Muslim army to enter. The Muslim forces attacked right and left raising the cries of "Allah-o-Akbar." The Byzantines were slaughtered in thousands and the survivors laid down arms. The citizens of Bosra agreed to pay Jizya, and thereupon a peace pact was drawn up.

Consequences of the conquest of Bosra. The conquest of Bosra in the second week of July 634 C.E. was the first important victory gained by the Muslims in Syria. The Muslims lost 130 men in the battle, while the Byzantines lost several thousand persons. Khalid informed Abu Bakr of the viceroy and dispatched the usual one fifth of the spoils of war. The conquest of Bosra opened for the Muslims the gate for the conquest of Syria.

Aftermath

Khalid bin Walid wrote to Caliph Abu Bakr, informing him of the progress of his operations since his entry into Syria, and sent one-fifth of the spoils which had been won during the past few weeks. Hardly had Bosra surrendered when an agent sent by Shurahbil to the region of Ajnadein returned to inform the Muslims that the concentration of Roman legions was proceeding apace. Soon they would have a vast army of 90,000 imperial soldiers at Ajnadein. Khalid ibn Walid ordered all the Muslim corps in Syria to concentrate at Ajnadayn and defeated the Byzantine army in the Battle of Ajnadayn.

External links

• A.I. Akram, The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns Lahore, 1969
• Romanus conversion to Islam www.witness-pioneer.org
• Romanus conversion in revolt against a city that rejected him is recorded in Chapter LI (pp 303-304) of "The history of the decline and fall of the Roman empire" By Edward Gibbon, Published 1862 (E. Claxton & co.) and available on Google Books. The relevant part is marked "Siege of Bosra".

References

1. ^ ^{a b c} Edward Gibbon (1788). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 5.
2. ^ Al- Waqidi: page no: 23

• A.I. Akram, The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns, Nat. Publishing. House, Rawalpindi (1970) ISBN 0-71010-104-X.

Meilleures salutations. Youssef CHARHABAILI.

Khalifah: A Novel of Conquest and Personal Triumph

Khalifah: A Novel of Conquest and Personal Triumph  

 

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http://books.google.fr/books?id=K40lhYChR2MC&pg=PA42&dq=shurahbil&hl=en&cd=2#v=onepage&q=shurahbil&f=false

Meilleures salutations. Youssef CHARHABAILI.

LA TOMBE DE SHURAHBIL IBN HASSANAH

LA TOMBE DE SHURAHBIL IBN HASSANAH

http://www.jtb.com.jo/brochures/tracing_deadsea.html

Meilleures salutations. Youssef CHARHABAILI.

Jordan Valley

 Jordan Valley

http://www.atlastours.net/jordan/jordan_valley.html 

Join other pilgrims in the Jordan Valley and visit the tombs of Prophet Mohammad's venerable companions and military leaders who fell in battle or became victims to the Amwas Plague or Great Plague in the 18th year after Hijra.

The venerable companion Abu Ubeida Amer ibn Al-Jarrah was the Prophet's relative and one of the first converts to Islam. Among the early Muslims who fled to Abyssinia, Abu Ubeida participated in all major events. Furthermore, he is one of the 'Blessed Ten', to whom the Prophet , promised paradise.

As the supreme commander of the Northern Muslim Army, Abu Ubeida successfully conquered Greater Syria. Prophet Mohammad dubbed him "The Trustee of the Nation" because of the knowledge he acquired.

When the Prophet died, Abu Ubeida was among the candidates for the Caliphate. He believed Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq was to lead the Muslims and become Caliph because Prophet Mohammad had asked him to lead prayers upon his death.

Abu Ubeida thus managed to avoid insurrection and disunity amongst Muslims. At the age of 58, he fell victim to the Great Plague that spread through Greater Syria. In the central Jordan Valley, his tomb is a major Islamic center with a mosque, library, and a cultural center.

The handsome, generous and venerable companion Mo'ath ibn Jabal entered Islam at the age of 18. He was one of the six charged with the task of compiling the Holy Qur'an during the life of Prophet Mohammad who said of him "the most knowledgeable on what is allowed and prohibited (in Islam) is Mo'ath ibn Jabal" and that "Mo'ath will be at the forefront of all scholars on Judgment Day".

In fact, he was regarded as the most learned in matters of Halal (permissible acts) and Haram (forbidden acts). Before accompanying Abu Ubeida Amer ibn Al-Jarrah on his conquests and later succeeding him, Prophet Mohammad sent Mo'ath ibn Jabal as counselor to the people of Yemen.

He also took part in the Aqaba Allegiance Convention between the Prophet and his supporters from Medina. He died at the age of 38 in the Jordan Valley, having spent his short life teaching faith and the Holy Qur'an. Today a modern building with 5 domes houses the tomb.

The venerable companion Shurahbil ibn Hasanah was among the early Muslims who fled to Abyssinia. He was reputed for his strong faith, intelligence, bravery and successful administration. Shurahbil actively participated in the Battle of Yarmouk and the conquest of Jerusalem. When the Caliph Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq sent the Muslim armies to Greater Syria, Shurahbil was in command of the army assigned to the conquest of Jordan.

Later, the Caliph Omar ibn Al-Khattab appointed Shurahbil the governor of a province in Greater Syria, where he distinguished himself for his fair dealings with subordinates. He died from the plague on the same day as the venerable companion Abu Ubeida Amer ibn Al-Jarrah .

The venerable companion Amir ibn Abi Waqqas was the maternal cousin of the Prophet and the 11th man to convert to Islam. He was devoted to his faith, although his mother Himnah, daughter of Abi Sufyan ibn Harb ibn Umayyah, swore to stay out in the burning sun until he renounces Islam. He migrated to Abyssinia and fought in the Battle of Uhud and was later entrusted with carrying messages from the commanders of the Muslim army to the Caliph in Medina.

Furthermore, he was the deputy of the venerable companion Abu Ubeida in his governorship of the military district of Syria. You can visit his tomb located inside a new building erected on vaults, within the village of Waqqas in the northern Jordan valley.

The venerable companion Derar ibn Al-Azwar was a poet and a fierce warrior who loved combat. He fought in the wars of Apostasy and took part in the conquest of Greater Syria along with his distinguished sister Khawlah bint Al-Azwar. In the town of Deir Alla a mosque superimposed by a dome houses the tomb of Dirar ibn Al-Azwar . The 18th year after Hijra was when he, too, became a victim of the Great Plague.

Meilleures salutations. Youssef CHARHABAILI.

Khâlid Ibn Saîd- compagnon du Prophète (saw)

Vendredi 20 février 2009 5 20 /02 /2009 07:38

http://oumsoumaya2.over-blog.com/article-28147095.html

http://oumsoumaya2.over-blog.com/article-28147095.html 

                                              Khâlid Ibn Saîd

 

Il faisait partie d'une des familles les plus aisées et les plus noble de la Mecque. Son père, Sa'îd Ibn Al-'Âs, était en effet issu de la célèbre tribu qurayshite des 'Abd Manâf. C'est donc au sein d'une grande tente que vit le jour et grandit notre noble illustre compagnon Khâlid Ibn Saîd. Comme tous les jeunes des familles aisées de la Mecque, Kâlid vivait dans l'insouciance matérielle, profitant de la vie et de ses plaisirs. Il faisait la joie de ses parents qui le croyaient et accédaient à toutes ses demandes.

 

Or, depuis quelque temps, Kâlid n'était plus le même homme, joyeux et insouciant. Il semblait préoccupé par quelque chose qui troublait son esprit et l'empêchait de se concentrer sur quoi que ce soit. C'est que la nouvelle de la révélation faite à Mohammed (saw) à la grotte de Hirâ commençait à se propager dans la Mecque pour devenir le sujet de discussion de tous les qurayshites. Kâlid non plus ne pouvait échapper à cette terrible interrogation : Mohammed (saw) était-il sincère ? Comment tous les habitants de la Mecque, il connaissait la sincérité et l'honnêteté de son concitoyen. Tout ce qu'il préférait dans cette vie, c'était la retraite et la solitude dans une grotte des environs de la Mecque appelée Ghâr Hirâ. C'est là qu'il avait l'habitude de se retirer pour méditer des journées entières. C'est là, dira-t-il, que l'Ange Gabriel est venu lui apporter la révélation pour quelle raison mentirait-il, se demandait sans cesse Kâlid, et pour récolter quoi, puisqu'il ne voulait ni de ce monde ni de ses plaisirs ?

Et les questions harcelaient l'esprit de Kâlid durant des jours et des jours jusqu'à ce que la lumière divine pénétrât son coeur. Une nuit, alors qu'il dormait, il fit un rêve étrange. Il s'est vu devant un grand feu au milieu duquel son père voulait le jeter, en le poussant de ses deux mains. Il vit ensuite le Prophète (saw) s'approcher de lui et s'interposer entre lui et le feu en le protégeant de son manteau. Cette vision bouleversa Kâlid qui vit là un signe du destin. Le lendemain matin, il se hâta vers Abû Bakr et lui raconta ce qu'il avait vu en rêve. Ce dernier lui dit : "Ô Kâlid, c'est le bien que je veix pour toi. C'est le Messager de dieu (saw) que tu as vu. Suis-le, car l'Islam te sera une barrière contre le feu."

 

Et cet homme illustre, que la quête de dieu attirait, s'en alla à la recherche du Messager de dieu (saw) pour proclamer sa conversion à l'Islam. A partir de ce jour, une métamorphose totale s'opéra en lui. Kâlid devint un autre homme. Il venait de découvrir les jouissances que procure la foi, la spiritualité et l'amour de dieu. Il n'allait vivre que pour cette idéal. Il va de soi que sa conversion ne resta pas secrète. Son père, mis au courant, l'appela et l'interrogea en ces termes : "Est-ce vrai que tu vient de rejoindre Mohammed (saw) qui ne cesse de dire du mal de nos divinités ?"

 

Notre illustre compagnon répondit : "Oui, je l'ai rejoint et j'ai cru en lui, par Dieu, il est sincère et ce qu'il dit est vrai !" Excédé, son père le frappa durement puis l'emprisonna dans une pièce et le soumit au supplice de la soif. Mais rien n'y fit, et notre glorieux compagnon ne cessait de répéter comme un leitmotiv : "Par Dieu, il est sincère et je crois en lui." Son père, qu'une telle proclamation mettait hors de lui, l'emmena alors dans le dessert aride de la Mecque et le laissait des heures durant dans la chaleur caniculaire et suffocante sans une goute d'eau ou un coin d'ombre. Les séances de torture alternaient avec les promesses et les tentatives de séduction, mais Kâlid, imperturbable, répondait : "Je n'abandonnerai jamais l'Islam et je mourrai musulman, advienne que pourra !" Alors, désespéré de voir revenir à ses anciennes croyances, son père lui dit : "Va-t-en, ô insolent, par Lât, je te priverai de ressources !" Kâlid lui répondit : "Dieu est le meilleur dispensateur de ressources."

 

Kâlid quitta le luxe et l'opulence de la maison paternelle sans aucun regret, tant il est vrai qu'il savait que sa nouvelle foi exigeait de lui ascétisme et détachement des choses de ce monde. Mais qu'importe. Notre illustre compagnon était prêt à tout abandonner pour préserver sa foi ; les richesses, la vie facile et les honneurs, il n'en a que faire. Son choix était fait. Il sera musulman et advienne que pourra.

 

Lors de la deuxième émigration en Abyssinie, il sera du nombre de ceux qui partiront pour échapper aux persécutions des qurayshites. Il restera là-bas jusqu'à la prise de Khaybar par les musulmans. La société islamique était en train de se constituer doucement mais sûrement. Kâlid y prit sa place et contribua avec ses compétences et ses atouts à leur édification et à leur défense. Certes, il avait regretté de ne pas avoir assisté à la bataille de Badr, mais le Messager de dieu (saw) lui avait dit : " Ne regrette rien, ô Kâlid, car les gens ont eu une seule émigration alors que vous en avez eu deux. Vous êtes partis chez le roi d'Abyssinie et vous êtes revenus auprès de moi."

Le Prophète (saw) l’estimait beaucoup et lui vouait une grande confiance. C’est ainsi qu’il l’envoya comme gouverneur au Yémen d’où il ne revint qu’après la mort du Prophète (saw). C’était lors de l’investiture d’Abû Bakr comme calife. On rapporte que notre illustre compagnon resta plus de trois mois avant de faire allégeance à Abû Bakr. Il semble qu’il ait préféré que le califat soit confié a ‘Ali ou à ‘Uthmân. Quoi qu’il en soit, ceci n’altéra en rien les relatons cordiales et fraternelles avec Abû Bakr qui l’estimait beaucoup. C’est à lui, en effet, qu’il confia le commandement des armées en route vers la Syrie pour combattre les troupes romaines. Cependant, suite à l’intervention de ‘Umar Ibn Al-Khattâb, le commandement lui fut retiré et confié à Shurahbil Ibn Hasna. Khâlid accepta d’être un simple soldat sous le commandement de Shurahbil et n’en tint nullement rancune à ‘Umar. Il continua à l’aimer et à l’estimer jusqu’à sa mort, nous rapporte sa fille Um Khâlid. Avant le départ des armées en Syrie, Abû Bakr fit à Shurahbil les recommandations suivantes :

 

« Observe Khâlid Ibn sa’îd, et sache que tu as des obligations vis-à-vis de lui, comme tu aurais aimé qu’il ait des obligations vis-à-vis de toi, si tu étais à sa place et lui à la tienne. Et tu n’ignores pas la place qu’il occupe parmi les musulmans. Et tu n’ignores pas qu’il était gouverneur du temps du Messager de Dieu (saw). Je lui avais confié, certes, le commandement et je le lui avais retiré. Et il se peut que cela lui soit profitable pour sa foi, car je n’envie jamais quelqu’un pour le pouvoir. Je lui ai laissé la liberté de choisir avec quel commandement il préférait être, et il t’a préféré à son cousin ‘Amar. » En effet, Khâlid avait choisi d’être avec Shurahbil plutôt qu’avec son cousin ‘Amar Ibn Al-‘Âs. Il dit à Abû Bakr : « Mon cousin m’est préférable par la parenté et Shurahbil par la ferveur religieuse. » Et c’est ainsi que notre illustre compagnon accepta de guerroyer comme simple soldat sous le commandement de Shurahbil Ibn Hasna. Durant la terrible bataille de Marj As-Sufr contre les romains, Khâlid s’illustra glorieusement en donnant toute la mesure de sa bravoure et de son aspiration au martyr. De se fait, à la fin de la bataille, on trouva son corps parmi les dizaines de martyrs tombés ce jour-là, dont ses frères ‘Amr et ‘Abbân. Que Dieu soit satisfait d’eux et de tous les compagnons du Messager de Dieu (saw).

Tirait du livre : Les compagnons du Prophète (tome1) Les premiers

hommes de l'Islam. Par Messaoud Abou Oussama

 

 

 

Meilleures salutations. Youssef CHARHABAILI.

Muslim conquest of Syria Chap. II/II

Muslim conquest of Syria Chap. II/II

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Byzantine temple in Idlib.
Next, the Muslim armies consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper into Palestine after the decisive Battle of Fahl. Bet She'an surrendered after a little resistance followed by the surrender of Tiberias in February 635. Caliph Umar, after having received the position and strength of the Byzantine army in Palestine, wrote detailed instructions to corps commanders in Palestine and ordered Yazid to capture the Mediterranean coast. The corps of Amr and Shurhabil accordingly marched against the strongest Byzantine garrison in Ajnadyn and defeated them in the 2nd Battle of Ajnadyn after which the two corps separated, with Amr moving to capture Nablus, Amawas, Gaza and Yubna in order to complete the conquest of all Palestine, while Shurahbil moved against the coastal towns of Acre and Tyre. Yazid advanced from Damascus to capture the ports of Sidon, Arqa, Jabail and Beirut. By 635 A.D, Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception of Jerusalem and Caesarea, were in Muslim hands. On the orders of Caliph Umar, Yazid next besieged Caesarea, which was lifted but resumed after the Battle of Yarmouk until the port fell in 640.

Battles for Emesa and 2nd Battle of Damascus
After the battle, which proved to be the key to Palestine and Jordan, the Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr’s corps moved south to capture Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid with a relatively larger corps moved north to conquer Northern Syria. While the Muslims were occupied at Fahl, Heraclius, sensing an opportunity, quickly sent an army under General Theodras to recapture Damascus, where a small Muslim garrison was left. Shortly after Heraclius dispatched this new army, the Muslims, after having won the battle of Fahl, were on their way to Emesa. The Byzantine army met the Muslims half way to Emesa, at Maraj al Rome. During the night, Theodras sent half of his army towards Damascus to launch a surprise attack on the Muslim garrison there. Khalid's spy informed him about the move and Khalid, having received permission from Abu Ubaidah, galloped towards Damascus with his mobile guard. While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in the Battle of Maraj-al-Rome, Khalid moved to Damascus with his cavalry and attacked and defeated Theodras in the 2nd battle of Damascus. A week later, Abu Ubaida himself moved towards Heliopolis, where the great Temple of Jupiter stood. Helipolis surrendered to Muslim rule after little resistance and agreed to pay tribute. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid straight towards Emesa. Emesa and Chalcis offered a peace treaty for a year. Abu Ubaidah accepted the offer and rather than invading districts of Emesa and Chalcis, he consolidated his rule in conquered land and captured Hamah, Ma’arrat an Nu’man. The peace treaties were enacted however on Heraclius instructions to lure the Muslims and to secure time for preparation of defenses of Northern Syria. Having mustered sizeable armies at Antioch, Heraclius sent them to reinforce strategically important areas of Northern Syria, like Emesa and Chalcis. With the arrival of the Byzantine army in the city, the peace treaty was violated; Abu Ubadiah and Khalid then marched to Emesa. A Byzantine army that halted Khalid’s advance guard was defeated. The Muslims besieged Emesa which was finally conquered in March 636 A.D after two months of siege.

Battle of Yarmouk
Main article: Battle of Yarmouk

Muslim and Byzantine troop movements before the battle of Yarmouk.
After capturing Emesa, the Muslims moved north to capture the whole of Northern Syria. Khalid took his mobile guard, acting as an advance guard, to raid Northern Syria. At Shaizer Khalid intercepted a convoy taking provisions for Chalcis. The prisoners were interrogated and informed him about Emperor Heraclius ambitious plan to take back Syria. They told him that an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong would soon arrive to recapture their territory. Khalid immediately ended the raid.
After his past experiences Heraclius now avoided pitch battle with the Muslim army. His plans were to send massive reinforcements to all the major cities and isolate the Muslim corps from each other and then to separately encircle and destroy the Muslim armies.
Part of his plans was to coordinate his attacks with those of Yazdgerd III. In 635 Yazdgerd III, the emperor of Sassanid Persian Empire, had sought an alliance with Heraclius. Heraclius married off his daughter (according to traditions, his granddaughter) Manyanh to Yazdegerd III, an old Roman tradition to show alliance. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd was supposed to mount a counterattack on his front in Iraq. This was supposed to be a well coordinated attack by both emperors, Heraclius in the Levant and Yazdegerd in Iraq, to annihilate the power of their common enemy Caliph Umar. However, it was not meant to be. Umar probably had intelligence of this alliance, and started peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III, apparently inviting him to join Islam. When Heraclius launched his offense in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owing to the exhausted conditions of his government, could not coordinate with the Heraclian offense and a would be decisive plan missed the mark. While Umar won a decisive victory at Yarmouk against Heraclius, Yazdegerd III, was being engaged and trapped in deception tactics by him. Yazdegerd III lost his imperial army at the Battle of Qadisiyyah in November 636 three months after Yarmouk, ending Sassanid control west of Persia.
Five massive armies were launched in June 636 A.D to recapture Syria. Khalid, having understood Heraclius plan, feared that the Muslim armies would become isolated and then piecemeal destroyed. He thus suggested Abu Ubaidah in a council of war to draw all the Muslim armies at one place to give a decisive battle to the Byzantines. Abu Ubaidah listened to Khalid’s advice and ordered all the Muslim armies in Syria to evacuate the conquered land and concentrated them at Jabiya. This maneuver of Khalid gave a decisive blow to Heraclius plan, since he wished not to engage his troops in an open battle with the Muslims, where the Muslims could use their light cavalry effectively. From Jabiya, again on Khalid’s suggestion, Abu Ubaidah ordered the Muslim troops to withdraw to the Plain of the Yarmouk River, where cavalry could be used effectively. While the Muslim armies were gathering at Yarmouk, Khalid intercepted and routed the Byzantine advance guard. This was to ensure the safe retreat of Muslims from the conquered land. The Muslim armies reached the plain in July 636 CE. A week or two later, around mid July, the Byzantine army arrived. The Byzantine commander in chief, Vahan, sent Christian Arab troops of Ghassanid king Jabala to check the strength of the Muslims. Khalid’s mobile guard defeated and routed the Christian Arabs; this was the last action before the battle started. For one month negotiations continued between the two armies and Khalid went to meet Vahan in person at the Byzantine camp. Meanwhile Muslims received reinforcements sent by Caliph Umar. Abu Ubaidah, in a council of war, transferred the command of the Muslim army to Khalid, who acted as a field commander in the battle and was the mastermind behind the annihilation of Byzantine army. Finally on 15 August the Battle of Yarmouk was fought, that lasted for 6 days and ended in a devastating defeat for the Byzantines. The Battle of Yarmouk is considered to be one of the most decisive battles of history. It was a historic defeat that sealed the fate of Byzantines. The magnitude of the defeat was so intense that the Byzantines were never able to recover from it. It left the whole of the Byzantine Empire vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. The battle was the greatest battle ever fought on Syrian soil till then and it was a tactical marvel of Khalid.

Capturing Jerusalem
With the Byzantine army shattered and routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured the territory that they had conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid, to decide on future conquests. They decided to conquer Jerusalem. The Siege of Jerusalem lasted four months after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr-bin al-Aas suggested that Khalid should be sent as caliph, because of his very strong resemblance with Caliph Umar. But Khalid was recognized and Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab had to come himself to accept the surrender of Jerusalem on April 637 A.D. After Jerusalem, the Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid’s corps came to Damascus and captured Beirut. Amr and Shurhabil’s corps went to conquer the rest of Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ahead of a 17,000 strong army moved north to conquer the whole of Northern Syria.

/Conquest of Northern Syria/

Map detailing the route of Muslim invasion of Northern Syria. see pic.:
http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?pid=2922330&op=2&o=global&view=global&subj=177792917975&id=791001191

With Emesa already in hand, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towards Chalcis, which was strategically the most significant fort of the Byzantines. Through Chalcis the Byzantines would be able to guard Anatolia, Heraclius homeland Armenia and their Asian zone’s capital Antioch. Abu Ubaidah send Khalid with his cavalry elite, the mobile guard, towards Chalcis. The fort was guarded by Greek troops under their commander Menas, who is reported to be of high prestige, second only to the Emperor himself. Menas, diverting from conventional Byzantine tactics, decided to face Khalid and destroy the leading elements of Muslim army before the main body could join them at Hazir 3 miles east of Chalcis. The battle fought is known as the Battle of Hazir, which even forced Caliph Umar to praise Khalid’s military genius. Umar is reported to have said:
“ Khalid is truly the commander. May Allah have mercy upon Abu Bakr. He was a better judge of men than I have been. ”
Abu Ubaidah soon joined Khalid at the virtually impregnable fort of Chalcis. The fort surrendered some time in June 637. With this strategic victory the territory north of Chalcis lay open to the Muslims. Khalid and Abu Ubaidah continued their march northward and laid siege to Allepo, which was captured after fierce resistance from desperate Byzantine troops in October 637 A.D. The next objective was the splendid city of Antioch, the capital of the Asian zone of the Eastern Roman empire. Before marching towards Antioch, Khalid and Abu Ubaidah decided to isolate the city from Anatolia. They accordingly sent detachments north to eliminate all possible Byzantine forces and captured a garrison town of Azaz 30 miles from Allepo; from there Muslims attacked Antioch from the eastern side. In order to save the empire from annihilation, a desperate battle was fought between the Muslim army and that of the defenders of Antioch, popularly known as the Battle of Iron bridge. The Byzantine army was composed of the survivors of Yarmouk and other Syrian campaigns. After being defeated, the Byzantines retreated to Antioch and the Muslims besieged the city. Having little hope of help from the Emperor, Antioch surrendered on 30 October 637 A.D under the condition that all Byzantine troops would be given safe passage to Constantinople. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid towards the north and he himself marched to the south and captured Lazkia, Jabla and Tartus and the coastal areas west of anti-lebonan hills. Khalid moved north and raided territory up to as far as Kızılırmak River in Anatolia. Emperor Heraclius had already left Antioch for Edessa before the arrival of the Muslims. He arranged for the necessary defenses in Jazirah and Armenia and left for his capital Constantinople. On his way to Constantinople he had a narrow escape when Khalid after capturing Marash was heading south towards Munbij. Heraclius hastily took the mountainous path and passing through the Cilician gates is reported to have said:
“ Farewell, a long farewell to Syria, my fair province. Thou art an infidel's (enemy's) now.
Peace be with you, O' Syria - what a beautiful land you will be for the enemy hands
”

Temple of Jupiter, Lebanon.
After the devastating defeat at Yarmouk, his empire was extremely vulnerable to a Muslim invasion. With few military resources left he was no longer in a position to attempt a military comeback in Syria. To gain time for the preparation of the defense of the rest of his empire Heraclius needed the Muslims occupied in Syria. He thus sought help from the Christian Arabs of Jezerah who mustered up a large army and marched against Emesa, Abu Ubaidah’s headquarter. Abu Ubaidah withdrew all his forces from Northern Syria to Emesa, and the Christian Arabs laid siege to Emesa. Khalid was in favor of an open battle outside the fort, but Abu Ubaidah sent the matter to Caliph Umar who brilliantly handled it. Umar sent a detachment of Muslim armies from Iraq to invade Jazerah, homeland of the invading Christian Arabs, from three different routes. Moreover, another detachment was sent to Emesa from Iraq under Qa’qa ibn Amr, a veteran of Yarmouk, who was sent to Iraq for the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. Umar himself marched from Madinah ahead of 1,000 men. When the Christian Arabs received the news of the Muslim invasion of their homeland, they abandoned the siege and hastily withdrew to Jazirah. At this point Khalid and his mobile guard came out of the fort and devastated their army by attacking them from the rear. This act of Jazirah's Christian Arabs was followed by fierce measures from the Caliphate, and Jazirah, the last base of the Eastern Roman empire in the Middle East was captured the same year. On the orders of Caliph Umar, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, commander of the Muslim army in Iraq, sent an army under Ayadh bin Ghanam to conquer the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates up to Urfa. Most of Jazirah surrendered peacefully and agreed to pay Jaziya.

Campaigns in Armenia and Anatolia
Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid and Ayaz ibn Ghanam's raids into Anatolia. see pic.:
http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?pid=2922315&op=3&o=global&view=global&subj=177792917975&id=791001191

After the battle Umar ordered the conquest of Jazirah which was completed by late summer 638 A.D. After the conquest of Jazirah Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Ayaz ibn Ghanam (conqueror of Jazirah) to invade Byzantine territory north of Jazirah. They marched independently and captured Edessa, Amida, Malatya and the whole of Armenia up to Ararat and raided Northern and central Anatolia. Heraclius had already abandoned all the forts between Antioch and Tartus to create a buffer zone or no man's land between the Muslim controlled areas and main land Anatolia. Caliph Umar for the time being stopped his armies invading deeper into Anatolia and rather ordered Abu Ubaidah, now governor of Syria, to consolidate his rule in Syria. At this point Caliph Umar is reported to have said:
“ I wish there was a wall of fire between us and the Romans, so that they could not enter our territory nor we could enter theirs ”
The dismissal of Khalid from the army and a drought followed by a plague the year after were factors why the Muslim armies didn't eventually invade Anatolia. The expedition to Anatolia and Armenia marked the end of the military career of Khalid.

Under Caliph Uthman's reign

Rashidiun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654
Strongholds of Rashidiun Caliphate

During the reign of Caliph Uthman, Constantine III decided to recapture the Levant, which had been lost to the Muslims during Umar’s reign. A full-scale invasion was planned and a large force was sent to reconquer Syria. Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, called for reinforcements and Uthman ordered the governor of Kufa to send a contingent, which together with the garrison of Syria defeated the Byzantine army in Northern Syria. Uthman gave permission to Muawiyah, the governor of Syria, to build a navy. From their base in Syria, the Muslims used this fleet to capture Cyprus in 649 and Crete and then Rhodes and the launching of annual raids into western Anatolia thwarted the Byzantines from making any further attempts to recapture Syria. In 654-655, Uthman ordered the preparation of an expedition to capture the capital of the Eastern Roman empire, Constantinople, but due to unrest in the empire that grew in 655 and resulted in his assassination, the expedition was delayed for decades only to be attempted unsuccessfully under the next dynasty of Ummayad rulers.

Administration under Rashidun Caliphate
The new rulers divided Syria into four districts (junds): Damascus, Hims, Jordan, and Palestine (to which a fifth, Qinnasrin, was later added) and the Arab garrisons were kept apart in camps, and life went on much as before for the local population. The Muslim adopted a policy of tolerance towards other religions, resulting in a positive effect on the newly subjected people, especially the Nestorian and Jacobite Christians and Jews (People of the Book), who had been previously persecuted under Byzantine rule. The loyalty of his new subjects was paramount to the success of Muslim rule in the region, therefore excessive taxation or oppression was avoided. The taxes instituted were the kharaj - a tax that landowners and peasants paid according to the productivity of their fields - as well as the jizya - paid by non-Muslims in return for protection under the Muslim state and exemption from military service. The Byzantine civil service was retained until a new system could be instituted; therefore, Greek remained the administrative language in the new Muslim territories for over 50 years after the conquests.

[The Rise of the Umayyads]

When the first civil war broke out in the Muslim empire as a result of the murder of Uthman and the nomination of Ali as caliph, the Rashidun Caliphate was succeeded by the new dynasty of Umayyad with Syria as its core and Damascus its capital for the next century to come....

Meilleures salutations. Youssef CHARHABAILI.

Muslim conquest of Syria chap. I

Muslim conquest of Syria chap. I

Part of the Muslim conquests and Byzantine-Arab Wars

Date 634-638
Location Palestine, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestain and South Eastern Anatolia.
Result Rashidiun victory
Territorial
changes Levant annexed by Muslims
Belligerents
Byzantine Empire
Ghassanid Kingdom Rashidiun Caliphate
Commanders
Heraclius
Jabalah Ibn Al-Aiham
Theodore Trithyrius
Vahan
Vardan
Thomas
Buccinator
Gregory Khalid ibn al-Walid
Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
Amr ibn al-A'as
Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan
Shurahbil ibn Hassana

Byzantine–Arab Wars
Early conflicts
Mutah – Tabouk – Dathin – Firaz
Rashidiun conquest of Roman Syria
Qarteen – Bosra – Ajnadayn – Marj-al-Rahit – Fahl – Damascus – Maraj-al-Debaj – Emesa – Yarmouk – Jerusalem – Hazir – Aleppo
Rashidun conquest of Roman Egypt
Heliopolis – Alexandria – Nikiou
Umayyad conquest of North Africa
Sufetula – Carthage
Umayyad invasions of Anatolia and Constantinople
Iron Bridge – Kahramanmaraş – Phoenix – 1st Constantinople – 2nd Constantinople – Akroinon
Arab campaigns in Southern Italy
Sicily – Mainland
Later Byzantine campaigns
Campaigns of John Kourkouas – Campaigns of Nikephoros II – Campaigns of John I – Campaigns of Basil II – George Maniakes in Sicily – Damietta
The Muslim conquest of Syria occurred in the first half of the 7th century,[1] and refers to the region known as the Bilad al-Sham, the Levant, or Greater Syria. Arab forces had appeared on the southern borders even before the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad in 632, resulting in the Battle of Mu'tah in 629, but the real invasion began in 634 under his successors, the Rashidun Caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar ibn Khattab, with Khalid ibn al-Walid as their most important military leader.

Byzantine Syria
Syria had been under Roman rule for seven centuries prior to the Arab conquest and had been invaded by the Sassanid Persians on a number of occasions during the third, sixth and seventh centuries; it had also been subject to raids by the Sassanid's Arab allies the Lakhmids. The region was known as the Iudaea Province of the Byzantine (Roman) Empire and the their Arab client state of the Ghassanids (symmachos). During the last of the Roman-Persian Wars, beginning in 603, the Persians under Khosrau II had succeeded in occupying Syria, Palestine and Egypt for over a decade before being forced by the victories of Heraclius to conclude the peace of 628. Thus, on the eve of the Muslim conquests the Romans were still in the process of rebuilding their authority in these territories, which in some areas had been lost to them for almost twenty years. Politically, the Syrian region consisted of two provinces: Syria proper stretched from Antioch and Aleppo in the north to the top of the Dead Sea. To the west and south of the Dead Sea lay the province of Palestine, which included the holy places of the three Abrahamic religions. Syria was partly an Arab land, especially in its eastern and southern parts. The Arabs had been there since pre-Roman times, and had embraced Christianity since Constantine I legalized it in the fourth century. The Arabs of Syria were people of no consequence until the migration of the powerful Ghassan tribe from Yemen to Syria, who thereafter ruled a semi-autonomous state with their own king under the Romans. The Ghassan Dynasty became one of the honoured princely dynasties of the Empire, with the Ghassan king ruling over the Arabs in Jordan and Southern Syria from his capital at Bosra. The last of the Ghassan kings, who ruled at the time of the Muslim invasion, was Jabla bin Al Aiham. Emperor Heraclius, after re-capturing Syria from the Sassanids, set up new defense lines from Ghazzah to the south end of the dead sea. These lines were only designed to protect communications from bandits, and the bulk of the Byzantine defenses were concentrated in Northern Syria facing the traditional foes, the Sassanid Persians. This defense line had as a drawback that it enabled the Muslims, who emerged from the desert in the south, to reach as far north as Ghazzah before meeting regular Byzantine troops. 7th century A.D was a time of fast military changes in the Byzantine empire. The empire was certainly not in a state of collapse when it faced the new challenge from Arabia after being exhausted by recent Roman-Persian Wars, but failed completely to tackle the challenge effectively.

Rise of Caliphate
The Islamic Prophet Mohammad died in June 632, and Abu Bakr was appointed Caliph and political successor at Medina. Soon after Abu Bakr's succession, several Arab tribes revolted against him in the Ridda wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on March 18, 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.
Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history, starting with a confrontation with the Persian Empire under the general Khalid ibn al-Walid.

Expedition to Syria

Map detailing Rashidun Caliphates invasion of the Levant. see pic.:
http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?pid=2922319&op=2&o=global&view=global&subj=177792917975&id=791001191

After successful campaigns against the Sassanids and the ensuing conquest of Iraq Khalid established his stronghold in Iraq. While engaged with Sassanid forces, confrontation also ensued with the Byzantine Arab clients, the Ghassanids. Tribal contingents were soon recruited to the call from Medinah from all over the Arabian peninsula. Only those who had rebelled during the Ridda wars were excluded from the summons and remained excluded from Rashidun armies until in 636 when Caliph Umar fell short of manpower for the Battle of Yarmouk and the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. The tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised the army as a state department. Abu Bakr organised the army into four corps, each with its own commander and objective.
Amr ibn al-A'as: Objective Palestine. Move on Elat route, then across Valley of Arabah.
Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan: Objective Damascus. Move on Tabuk route.
Shurahbil bin hassana: Objective Jordan. Move on Tabuk route after Yazid.
Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah: Objective Emesa. Move on Tabuk route after Shurahbil.
Not knowing the precise position of the Byzantine army, Caliph Abu Bakr ordered that all corps should remain in touch with each other so that they could help each other if the Byzantines were able to concentrate their army in any sector of operation. In case the corps had to concentrate for one major battle, Abu Ubaidah was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the entire army. In the first week of April 634, the Muslim forces began to move from their camps outside Madina. The first to leave was Yazid's corps, followed by Shurahbil, Abu Ubaidah and Amr, each a day's march from the other. Caliph Abu Bakr walked for a short distance by the side of each corps commander. His parting words he repeated to the each corps commanders, were as follows:
“ In your march be not hard on yourself or your army. Be not harsh with your men or your officers, whom you should consult in all matters. Be just and abjure evil and tyranny, for no nation which is unjust prospers or achieves victory over its enemies. When you meet the enemy turn not your back on him; for whoever turns his back, except to manoeuvre for battle or to regroup, earns the wrath of Allah. His abode shall be hell, and what a terrible place it is! And when you have won a victory over your enemies, don't kill women or children or the aged and do not slaughter beasts except for eating. And break not the pacts which you make. You will come upon a people who live like hermits in monasteries, believing that they have given up all for God. Let them be and destroy not their monasteries. And you will meet other people who are partisans of Satan and worshippers of the Cross, who shave the centre of their heads so that you can see the scalp. Assail them with your swords until they submit to Islam or pay the Jizya. I entrust you to the care of Allah. ”

//Muslim conquest of Syria//
Moving to their assigned target beyond Tabouk, Yazid's corps made contact with a small Christian Arab force that was retreating after a skirmish with the Muslim advance guard, after which Yazid made for the Valley of Araba where it meets the southern end of the Dead Sea. As the main Byzantine defence line started from the coastal regions near Ghazahh, Yazid arrived at the Valley of Araba at about the same time as Amr bin Al Aas reached Elat. The two forward detachments sent by the Byzantine army to prevent the entry of Yazid's and Amr's corps, respectively, into Palestine, were easily defeated by them, though they did prevent the Rashidun forces from reaching their assigned objective. Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil, on the other hand, continued their march, and by early May 634 they reached the region between Bosra and Jabiya. The Emperor Heraclius, having received intelligence of the movements of the Muslim armies from his Arab clients, began to plan countermeasures. Upon Heraclius orders, Byzantine forces from different garrisons in the North started moving to gather at Ayjnadyn. From here they could engage Amr's corps and maneuver against the flank or rear of the rest of the Muslim corps that were in Jordan and Southern Syria. The strength of the Byzantine forces, according to rough estimates, was about 100,000. Abu Ubaidah informed the Caliph about the preparations made by the Byzantines in the third week of May 634. Because Abu Ubaida didn't have the experience as a commander of military forces in such major operations, especially with the powerful Roman Army, Abu Bakr decided to send Khalid ibn Walid to the Syrian front to command the Muslim army. According to early Muslim chronicles Abu Bakr said:
“ By Allah, I shall destroy the Romans and the friends of Satan with Khalid Ibn Al Walid. ”

//Conquest of Syria under Caliph Abu Bakr//
Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's invasion of Syria. see pic.:
http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?pid=2922329&op=2&o=global&view=global&subj=177792917975&id=791001191

Khalid was immediately dispatched to the Syrian front. He set out for Syria from Hira, in Iraq in early June 634, taking with him half his army, about 8000 strong. There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq: one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal, and the other was through Mesopotamia, passing through Ar Raqqah. The Muslim armies in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement, so Khalid avoided the conventional route to Syria via Daumat ul Jandal, as it was the longer route, and would take weeks to reach Syria. Khalid avoided the Mesopotamia’s route because of the presence of Roman garrisons in Northern Syria and Mesopotamia. To engage them at a time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria was not a wise idea. Khalid selected a shorter route to Syria, an unconventional route passing through the Syrian Desert. He boldly marched his armies through the desert. It is recorded that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a pre-decided water source at an oasis. Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught the Byzantines at their right flank. According to modern historians, it was this ingenious strategic maneuver of Khalid, his perilous march through the desert and appearing at the north-eastern front of the Byzantines while they were occupied in tackling the Muslim armies in southern Syria, that unhinged the Byzantine defenses in Syria.

//Conquest of southern Syria//
Sawa, Arak, and the historical city of Tadmur were first to fall to Khalid. Sukhnah, Qaryatayn and Hawarin were captured after the Battle of Qarteen and the Battle of Hawareen. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towards Damascus, passing though a mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab pass) after the name of Khalid's army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towards Bosra, the capital of Ghassanid Arab kingdom, a vassal of the Eastern Roman empire. He ordered other Muslim commanders to concentrate their armies, still near the Syrian-Arabian border at Bosra. At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a Ghassanid army of Christian Arabs in a quick battle, called the Battle of Marj-al-Rahit. Meanwhile Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of the Muslim armies in Syria, had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Bosra. The latter laid siege of Bosra with his small army of 4000 men. The Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, noticing that this might be the advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, decided to attack and destroy Shurhabil’s army. They came out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides; Khalid reached the arena with his advance guard cavalry and saved the day for Shurhabil. The combined forces of Khalid, Shurhabil and Abu Ubaidah then laid siege to the city of Bosra, which surrendered some time in mid July 634. This effectively ended the Ghassanid Dynasty.


Geographical Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's invasion of Syria. see pic.:
http://www.facebook.com/photo.php?pid=2922317&op=3&o=global&view=global&subj=177792917975&id=791001191

Here Khalid took over the command of the Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, according to the instructions of the Caliph. Massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to the desert. Early Muslim sources have mentioned its size to be 90,000, while most of the modern historians doubt the figures, but consider this battle to be the key that broke the Byzantine power in Syria. According to the instructions of Khalid all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they fought a decisive battle against the Byzantines on 30 July 634. The defeat of the Byzantines at the Battle of Ajnadayn left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus Thomas, son in law of Emperor Heraclius, was in charge. Having received intelligence of Khalid’s march towards Damascus he prepared for the defence of Damascus. He wrote to Emperor Heraclius, who was at Emesa that time, for reinforcements. Moreover Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of a siege, sent armies to delay or if possible halt Khalid’s march to Damascus. One of these armies was defeated at the Battle of Yaqusa in mid-August 634 near Lake Tiberias 90 miles from Damascus. Another army that tried to halt the Muslim advance to Damascus was defeated in Battle of Maraj as Saffer on 19 August 634. These engagements delayed Khalid’s advance and gave Thomas enough time to prepare for a siege. Meanwhile a reinforcement reached the city, which Heraclius had dispatched after hearing the bad news of Ajnadyn. But before another regiment of Heraclius could reach Damascus, Khalid had already lied siege to Damascus. Khalid reached Damascus the 20th August and besieged the city. To isolate the city from the rest of the region Khalid placed detachments south on the road to Palestine and in the north at the Damascus-Emesa route, and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraclius reinforcement was intercepted and routed at the Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab 20 miles from Damascus. Khalid's forces withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break the siege. Khalid finally attacked and conquered Damascus on 18 September 634 after a 30 days siege, although according to some sources the siege lasted for four or six months. Heraclius, having received the news of the fall of Damascus, left for Antioch from Emesa. A peace agreement was made: the citizens were given peace on the terms of annual tribute and the Byzantine army was given a three day peace period to go as far as they could. After the deadline of three days was over, the Muslim cavalry under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army, catching up on them using an unknown shortcut, at the Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj, 190 miles north of Damascus. Abu Bakr died during the siege of Damascus and Umar became the new Caliph. He dismissed his cousin Khalid ibn al-Walid from command and appointed Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as the new commander in chief of the Islamic army in Syria. Abu Ubaidah got the letter of his appointment and Khalid's disposal during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city was conquered.

/Conquest Under Caliph Umar/

Dismissal of Khalid from command
On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, having made Umar his successor. Umar's first move was to relieve Khalid from command and appointing Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as the new commander in chief of the Islamic army. The relationship between Khalid and Umar was already tense since the incident of Malik ibn Neuwera. There was an air of distrust between Khalid and Caliph Umar, which resulted in the dismissal of Khalid from supreme command then and later in 638 from military services. Later on, Khalid gave a pledge of loyalty to the new Caliph and kept on serving as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah. He is reported to have said:
“ If Abu Bakr is dead and Umar is Caliph, then we listen and obey. ”
There was inevitably a slowdown in the pace of military operations, as Abu Ubaida moved more slowly and steadily. The conquest of Syria continued under him. Abu Ubaidah, being an admirer of Khalid, made him commander of the cavalry and relied heavily on his advice during the whole campaign.

/Conquest of Central Levant/

Soon after the appointment of Abu-Ubaidah as commander in chief, he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu-al-Quds, modern day Abla, near Zahle 30 miles east of Beirut. There was a Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison nearby, but the size of the garrison was miscalculated by the Muslim informants. The garrison quickly encircled the small Muslim detachment, but before it was completely destroyed, Khalid came to the rescue of the Muslim army. Abu Ubaidah, having received new intelligence, had sent Khalid. Khalid reached the battlefield and defeated the garrison in the Battle of Abu-al-Quds on 15 October 634 A.D and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners. By capturing central Syria, the Muslims had given a decisive blow to the Byzantines. The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off. Abu Ubaidah decided to march to Fahl, which is about 500 feet below sea level, where a strong Byzantine garrison and survivors of Battle of Ajnadayn were present. The region was crucial because from here the Byzantine army could strike eastwards and cut Muslim’s communications with Arabia. Moreover, with this large garrison at their rear Palestine could not be invaded. These were the reasons why the Muslim army moved against Fahl. Khalid commanded the advance guard and reached Fahl first and found that the plains were flooded by the Byzantines who had blocked the River Jordan. The Byzantine army was eventually defeated at the Battle of Fahl on the 23rd of January 635 A.D.

http://www.facebook.com/topic.php?uid=177792917975&topic=11461

Meilleures salutations. Youssef CHARHABAILI.

Sword of Allah: Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl

http://www.grandestrategy.com/2007/12/sword-of-allah-chapter-32-battle-of.html 

Sword of Allah: Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl

Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl

Page 1

"The plotting of Evil surrounds only its own plotters."
[Quran 35:43]

More will be said in a later chapter about the character and abilities of Heraclius and the strategy he used for his attempt to crush the Muslim invaders of his Empire. Here it may just be noted that as an enemy, Heraclius was a man to be reckoned with-not one to give up the struggle while the least hope remained. His next move after the affair of Abul Quds was to put another army in the field, consisting of fresh contingents from Northern Syria, the Jazeera and Europe. This army included the survivors of the Meadow of Brocade. Part of the army gathered at Antioch, while part landed by sea at the Mediterranean ports in Syria and Palestine.
The concentration of this army at Baisan, west of the Jordan River, began in late December 634 (early Dhul Qad, 13 Hijri). From here the army would strike eastwards and cut Muslim communications with Arabia. According to this plan-which was typical of Heraclius-he would avoid a head-on clash with the Muslims at Damascus, put them in a position of strategical disadvantage, and force them to evacuate Damascus. Fahl, just east of the Jordan River, was already occupied by a Roman garrison of moderate size which was engaged by a Muslim cavalry detachment under Abul A'war.
The Muslims received intelligence of the movement of Roman contingents from local agents; and before the concentration of the Romans at Baisan was complete, they knew that the strength of this new army would be about 80,000 men, and that its commanders was Saqalar, son of Mikhraq. It was evident that this force would move eastwards and place itself astride the Muslim lines of communication. A council of war was held by Abu Ubaidah, and it was decided that the Muslims should move and crush this new Roman army, leaving behind a strong garrison to hold Damascus against any threat from the north and west. By now the Muslims had fully rested after their heroic labours. Soon after Abul Quds, more reinforcements had been received from Arabia, while a large number of those who had been wounded in earlier battles had rejoined the Muslim ranks as fit soldiers. This raised the strength of the army to something like 30,000 men, organised in five corps of varying strength.
Now the command arrangement made by Abu Bakr and confirmed by Umar came into effect in a rather unusual way. Yazeed was the commander and governor of the Damascus region, and was consequently left in Damascus with his corps. Shurahbil was the commander appointed for the district of Jordan in which lay Baisan and Fahl. Hence Abu Ubaidah, carrying out the Caliph's instructions to the letter-farther than was probably intended-handed over the command of the army to Shurahbil for the forthcoming operation. In about the second week of January 635, the Muslim army, leaving behind the corps of Yazeed, marched from Damascus under the command of Shurahbil, with Khalid and the corps of Iraq forming the advance guard. In the middle of January the Muslims arrived at Fahl to find the Roman garrison gone, Abul A'war in occupation of the town, and what looked like a marsh stretching on both sides of the Jordan River. 1
As soon as the Roman garrison of Fahl had heard of the advance of the Muslim army from Damascus, it had left the place in haste, and withdrawing across the river, joined the main body of the Roman army at Baisan. Immediately after, the Romans, not wishing to be disturbed at Baisan before their preparations were complete, dammed the river a few miles south of the Baisan-Fahl line and flooded the low-lying belt which stretched along both banks of the river. The flooded area was determined by the contour line and in places was up to a mile from the river. There were some routes across this inundated area, but they were known only to the Romans. The Muslims knew the desert; they had come to know the hills; but this belt of water and mud which stretched along their front was a new experience and left them nonplussed. However, they decided to attempt a crossing.
1. Fahl is below sea level, and from the town the hillside slopes even further down to the bed of the Jordan Valley. In this area the Jordan River is about 900 feet below sea level.

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Shurahbil deployed the army at the foot of the slope below Fahl, facing north-west, with Abu Ubaidah and Amr bin Al Aas commanding the wings. Dhiraar was appointed commander of the Muslim cavalry, while Khalid with his corps was placed in front to lead the advance to Baisan. In this formation the Muslims advanced. But they had not gone far when the Advance Guard got stuck in the mud and had considerable difficulty in extricating itself. Cursing the Romans for this stratagem, the Muslims returned to Fahl and waited. Thus a whole week passed.
Now Saqalar, the Roman commander, decided that the time had come to strike. His preparations were complete and he hoped to catch the Muslims off guard since the marsh would give them, he hoped, a false sense of security. His guides would lead the army through the marsh which the Muslims regarded as impassable. Soon after sunset on January 23, 635 (the 27th of Dhul Qad, 13 Hijri), the Roman army formed up west of the river and began its advance towards Fahl, intending to surprise the Muslims in their camps at night.
But the Muslims had not relaxed their guard. Shurahbil was a watchful general and had deployed the Muslim camp to correspond to the battle positions of the corps, and kept a large portion of each corps in its battle positions during the night. He had also placed a screen of scouts along the marsh to watch and report any movement by the Romans towards Fahl. Thus, as the Romans neared Fahl, they found an army, not resting in its camp, but formed up in battle array. Immediately on contact the battle began.
The two armies fought all night and the whole of the next day-January 24, 635. The Muslim army remained on the defensive and beat off all attempts by the Romans to break through, during one of which Saqalar was killed. By the time darkness had set in again, the Romans decided that they had had enough. They had suffered heavily at the hands of the Muslims, who had stood like a wall of steel in their path; and this wall had not been breached at a single place. Under cover of darkness the Romans disengaged and began to withdraw across the marsh towards Baisan.
This was the moment that Shurahbil was waiting for. He had fought the Romans until they were exhausted, and suffering from the adverse psychological impact of repeated repulses, had started to withdraw. Now was the time to launch the counterstroke. Shurahbil ordered the advance; and in the darkness, the desert-dwellers leapt upon the backs of the Romans!
This time the Roman 'traffic control plan' failed. Thousands of them were lost in the marsh, and as the screaming masses of the Muslims came after them, they gave way to panic and lost all order and cohesion. The Muslims set to with gusto to finish this army and played havoc with their terrified enemy. About 10,000 Romans perished in the Battle of Fahl, which is also known in Muslim history as the Battle of Mud. 1 Some of the Romans arrived safely at Baisan while others, fleeing for their lives in total disorder, dispersed in all directions.
With the defeat of this Roman army, the Muslim army also broke up. Abu Ubaidah and Khalid remained at Fahl, whence they would shortly set out for Damascus and Northern Syria. Shurahbil, with Amr bin Al Aas under command, crossed the marsh and the river, routes through which had now been found, and laid siege to Baisan. After a few days the Romans in the fort made a sally but were slaughtered by Shurahbil. Soon after this sally Baisan surrendered and agreed to pay the Jizya and certain taxes. Shurahbil then went on to Tabariya, which also surrendered on similar terms. This last action was over before the end of February 635 (Dhul Haj, 13 Hijri). There was now no opposition left in the inland part of the District of Jordan.
With the beginning of the fourteenth year of the Hijra, Amr bin Al Aas and Shurahbil turned their attention to Palestine. Here again a change of command took place. Palestine was the province of Amr, and consequently he assumed command of the army, while Shurahbil served under him as a corps commander. But it was some time before this small army of two corps entered Palestine.
1. Most early historians have said that the bulk of the Roman army was destroyed in this battle. Balazuri, however, has placed Roman losses at 10,000 (p. 122); and this is here accepted as the most conservative estimate.

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While still in Jordan, Amr had written to the Caliph and given him the latest intelligence about Roman dispositions and strengths in Palestine. The strongest Roman force was at Ajnadein. Umar gave detailed instructions to Amr about the objectives which he was to take, and also wrote to Yazeed to capture the Mediterranean coast. In pursuance of these instructions the Muslim army, excluding the corps of Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, operated against the Romans in Palestine and on the coast as far north as Beirut. The corps of Amr and Shurahbil marched to Ajnadein, and with Amr as army commander, fought and defeated a Roman army in the second Battle of Ajnadein. Thereafter the corps separated. Amr went on to capture Nablus, Amawas, Gaza and Yubna, thus occupying all Palestine, while Shurahbil thrust against the coastal towns of Acre and Tyre, which capitulated to him. Yazeed, with his brother Muawiyah playing an important role under him, advanced from Damascus and captured the ports of Sidon, Arqa, Jabail and Beirut.
The place which took the longest to capture was Caesarea. Umar had given this as an objective to Yazeed; and he and Muawiyah laid siege to it, but Caesarea, reinforced and supplied by the Romans by sea, could not be captured in spite of their best efforts. The siege was raised when the Muslims had to regroup for the Battle of Yarmuk, but was resumed after that battle and continued until the port fell in 640 (19 Hijri).
By the end of 14 Hijri (roughly 635 A.D.), Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception of Jerusalem and Caesarea, were in Muslims hands.

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Meilleures salutations. Youssef CHARHABAILI.